Integrating metaverse-based training frameworks for concrete 3D printing construction

Concrete three-dimensional printing (3DCP) is transforming construction by improving automation, efficiency, and design flexibility. Yet its adoption is hindered by the complexity of integrating cyber–physical systems, which often leads to training inefficiencies, material waste, and unreliable workflows. From a Lean Construction perspective, effective implementation requires zero-waste learning environments, reliable process rehearsal, and continuous skill development. This paper presents a Lean-oriented metaverse-based training method that supports immersive, simulation-driven learning for concrete 3D printing. The method combines digital twins, interactive environments, and virtual production rehearsal to enable safe experimentation without material consumption. Training modules cover hardware familiarization, printer setup, software design workflows, and preventive maintenance, emphasizing flow reliability and the long-term performance impacts of operational decisions. By validating procedures before physical execution, the method reduces rework, improves predictability, and supports continuous improvement. Results show that metaverse-based Lean training enhances experiential learning, strengthens systems understanding, and enables zero-waste process optimization. A validation survey showed that 68.5%–90.7% of participants rated the method as better or much better than conventional training approaches across all evaluated constructs. The proposed approach demonstrates how immersive technologies can align advanced construction methods with Lean principles to improve efficiency, reliability, and sustainable adoption of 3D printing in construction.